After the Prophet's death in 632 CE the community divided first over who should lead it. Sunni and Shia are the two large branches; the Ibadi school traces to an early movement that Ibadis themselves distinguish from the Khawarij. The three movements in the box at the bottom identify as Muslim; mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship does not accept them as Islam, and each card says why.
Read left to right, from earlier to later. On a phone, swipe sideways to see the whole tree. Dates are shown only where they are well documented.
HOW ISLAM SEES THIS
Islam teaches that the believers are one community and should not be divided. The Quran says: ‘hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided’ (Quran 3:103), and ‘The believers are but brothers, so make settlement between your brothers’ (Quran 49:10). It says that the religion given to the earlier prophets and to Muhammad is ‘to establish the religion and not be divided therein’ (Quran 42:13).
The Quran calls Muhammad ‘the Messenger of Allah and last of the prophets’ (Quran 33:40) and teaches that God is One (Quran 112:1). The oneness of God and the finality of prophethood are two of the grounds on which mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship does not accept the movements in the last section; the third is the authority of the Sunnah. Each card states the specific reason.
In 2005 the Amman Message, issued after an international Islamic conference, recognized eight schools of law as Muslim: the four Sunni schools, Ja'fari and Zaydi, Ibadi and Zahiri. It said that followers of these schools may not be declared apostates. The pages that follow record what each group teaches, in its own terms, and note where mainstream scholarship disagrees.
Who should lead after the Prophet?
The community and its scholars; caliphs chosen by consensus. Sunni, with its law schools and creeds
Ali and eleven of his descendants, divinely designated. Twelver Shia
A living imam or a da'i in the line of Isma'il. Ismaili
Any learned, active descendant of Hasan or Husayn who rises. Zaidi
Any pious Muslim, elected and removable if he sins. Ibadi; the early Khawarij
What are the sources of law and belief?
Quran, hadith, consensus and analogy. Sunni and its four law schools
Quran with the teachings of the Prophet and the twelve imams. Twelver Shia
Quran with a living imam's guidance and an inner meaning. Ismaili
Quran and Sunnah, read by Ibadi or Zaidi scholars. Ibadi, Zaidi
Quran alone; hadith not binding. Quranists
Quran plus further teachings of a founder. Ahmadiyya (Mirza Ghulam Ahmad); Nation of Islam (Elijah Muhammad, with the Bible)
Is there a prophet after Muhammad?
No: Muhammad is the last prophet (Quran 33:40). Sunni, Twelver, Ismaili, Zaidi, Ibadi
Yes, a subordinate prophet who brought no new law. Ahmadiyya (the Lahore branch regards Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer, not a prophet)
A further Messenger of God, Elijah Muhammad. Nation of Islam
Muhammad is the Messenger; one Quranist group, the Submitters, claimed a further messenger. Quranists
Do mainstream scholars count it within Islam?
Yes: schools named in the Amman Message of 2005. The four Sunni schools, Ja'fari (Twelver), Zaidi, Ibadi
Identifies as Muslim; some Sunni and Twelver scholars have disputed its doctrines. Ismaili
A tendency or school inside the branches. Sufism, the three Sunni creeds
Historic movements. Khawarij, Mu'tazila
Identifies as Muslim; not accepted as Islam by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship. Ahmadiyya, Nation of Islam, Quranists
Adherent figures are approximate and come from the groups themselves, Pew or the best available estimate. Groups appear in the same order in the cards below.
Sunni and Shia are the two largest branches. Ismaili is a branch of Shia Islam, and Ibadi is a third school with its own origins. The Amman Message (2005) recognized the four Sunni law schools, the Ja'fari (Twelver) and Zaydi law schools, and the Ibadi and Zahiri schools as Muslim. Ismailis identify as Muslims; some Sunni and Twelver scholars have historically disputed Ismaili doctrines.
Sunni Islam
Mainstream branch87 to 90 percent of Muslims (Pew 2009, 2012)
Took shape after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) in 632 CE, over who should lead the community. Sunnis accept the elected caliphs, beginning with Abu Bakr.
AuthorityThe Quran and the Sunnah, as preserved in the hadith (the collections of al-Bukhari and Muslim are the most trusted); scholarly consensus (ijma) and analogy (qiyas).
GodAbsolute oneness of God (tawhid).
ProphetsMuhammad is the final Prophet and Messenger. Jesus (peace be upon him), Moses (peace be upon him) and others are honored prophets and messengers of God.
LeadershipNo priesthood or central hierarchy. Authority rests with scholars (ulama), judges and, historically, the caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali are called the 'Rightly Guided' caliphs.
Core beliefs
- Leadership of the community after the Prophet passed by consensus and selection, beginning with Abu Bakr; the four Rightly Guided caliphs are honored.
- All the Prophet's companions are respected; no human leader is infallible.
- The hadith collections are a second source of law beside the Quran.
- Scholarly consensus and legal reasoning are accepted tools of interpretation.
- Four main schools of law and three main creedal traditions are all considered orthodox.
PracticesFive Pillars (declaration of faith, prayer, fasting in Ramadan, almsgiving, pilgrimage to Mecca); Friday congregational prayer; two annual festivals (Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha).
Twelver Shia (Ithna Ashari)
Mainstream branch (Shia)About 85 percent of Shia (commonly cited)
Shia identity formed after 632 CE around the belief that the Prophet named Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Twelvers follow twelve imams; the twelfth, Muhammad al-Mahdi, is believed to have gone into occultation in the 9th century.
AuthorityThe Quran and the teachings and traditions of the Prophet and the twelve imams; reason (aql). Lay believers follow a senior jurist (marja' al-taqlid) in matters of law.
GodAbsolute oneness of God (tawhid), with God's justice ('adl) stressed as a root of religion.
ProphetsMuhammad is the final Prophet. Twelvers also hold that the twelve imams, though not prophets, are divinely guided and free from sin.
LeadershipClerical scholars (mujtahids, ayatollahs); no pope. The Hidden Imam is the true leader. In Iran the system of 'guardianship of the jurist' (wilayat al-faqih) is a doctrine held in some Twelver interpretations and not others.
Core beliefs
- Ali was divinely designated as the Prophet's successor and the first imam.
- Twelve imams, descendants of Ali and Fatima, are divinely guided leaders and interpreters of religion.
- Five 'roots of religion': oneness of God, God's justice, prophethood, the imamate and the resurrection.
- The twelfth imam is in occultation and will return as the Mahdi to establish justice.
- Mourning for Husayn at Karbala is central to devotional life.
PracticesFive Pillars plus other obligations; Friday prayer; mourning of Husayn at Karbala (680 CE) on Ashura; pilgrimage to shrines of the imams (Najaf, Karbala, Mashhad, Qom).
Disputed or notedThe political role of clerics (for example, wilayat al-faqih) is disputed among Twelvers themselves. Whether Shia count as Muslims is rejected by some Sunnis; Pew (2012) found that in most Middle East and North Africa countries surveyed, at least four in ten Sunnis did not accept Shia as Muslims.
Ismaili Shia
Branch of Shia Islam12 to 15 million (community estimate)
After the death of the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, in 765 CE, his followers divided; Ismailis follow his son Isma'il and his line. The Fatimid caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171. After 1094 the community split into the Nizaris and the Musta'lis (including the Tayyibi Dawoodi Bohras).
AuthorityThe Quran and the guidance of a living imam (Nizari) or of a da'i (Tayyibi). Both read the Quran for an inner (batin) meaning as well as the outer text.
GodAbsolute oneness of God, with a strong tradition of philosophical, esoteric reflection on how God is known.
ProphetsMuhammad is the final Prophet. The imams are guides, not prophets.
LeadershipNizari Ismailis follow a living hereditary imam: Aga Khan V (Prince Rahim Al-Hussaini), the 50th imam, succeeded Aga Khan IV in February 2025. Tayyibi Ismailis (Dawoodi Bohras) follow a da'i al-mutlaq.
Core beliefs
- The imamate continues in the line of Isma'il through a living imam (Nizari) or through a da'i with the imam in seclusion (Tayyibi).
- Scripture has an outer (zahir) and an inner (batin) meaning.
- Seven-imam heritage is the root of the nickname 'Seveners'.
- Fatimid history is a major source of Ismaili intellectual heritage.
PracticesPrayer, fasting and other duties interpreted for the age; in the Nizari tradition, communal prayer in jamatkhanas; strong emphasis on education, service and pluralism.
Disputed or notedSome Twelver and Sunni scholars have historically disputed Ismaili doctrines; Ismailis identify as Muslims. Population figures are estimates from the community.
Zaidi Shia (Zaydis)
Branch of Shia IslamMostly northern Yemen; no global count (about one-third to 40 percent of Yemen, MRG)
Followers of Zayd ibn Ali, grandson of Husayn, who led a revolt in 740. Yahya ibn al-Husayn (al-Hadi ila al-Haqq) was invited to Sa'da and recognized as imam in 897; the Zaidi imamate in Yemen lasted, with interruptions, until the 1962 revolution.
AuthorityThe Quran and Sunnah; jurists draw also on the tradition of Zayd and later imams. Zaidi law is close to Sunni legal schools.
GodAbsolute oneness; Zaidi theology was historically influenced by the Mu'tazila.
ProphetsMuhammad is the final Prophet. Zaidis do not regard imams as infallible.
LeadershipAn imam must be a learned, able descendant of Hasan or Husayn who 'rises' to claim the imamate.
Core beliefs
- After Ali, Hasan and Husayn, the imamate belongs to any worthy descendant of Hasan or Husayn who is learned and active.
- Imams are not infallible or hidden; there is no belief in a hidden twelfth imam.
- Recognizes Zayd ibn Ali as the fifth imam, unlike Twelvers and Ismailis, who follow Muhammad al-Baqir.
- Closest of the Shia branches to the Sunni schools in law.
PracticesPrayer and legal practice close to Sunni practice; celebration of Ghadir in Yemen.
Disputed or notedThe Houthi movement in Yemen is rooted in Zaidi revival but is a political and military movement. Not all Zaidis are Houthis, and many Zaidis dispute its claims.
Ibadi Islam
Third branch of IslamAbout 2.5 to 3 million
Traditionally dated to about 684 CE (64 AH) in Basra, when Abd Allah ibn Ibad separated from the militant Azraqi wing of the early Kharijite movement; Jabir ibn Zayd is credited with organizing the community and its law. Exact early history is debated by scholars.
AuthorityThe Quran, the Sunnah as transmitted by Ibadi scholars, and their own early jurists.
GodAbsolute oneness of God. Ibadis traditionally teach that believers will not see God with the eyes in the afterlife.
ProphetsMuhammad is the final Prophet.
LeadershipAn elected imam, who can be removed if he disobeys; scholars guide the process. In Oman, the sultanate is the state of an Ibadi majority, with a Grand Mufti.
Core beliefs
- Leader (imam) is chosen by the community for piety and ability, and can be deposed if he does wrong.
- A major sinner is not an unbeliever (a position that separates Ibadis from the early Kharijites).
- Rejects extremism and accepts coexistence with other Muslims.
- Traditionally teaches that sinners who die unrepentant remain in hell and that God is not seen in the afterlife.
PracticesFive Pillars; some small differences in prayer, such as arms held at the sides; pray with other Muslims in mixed mosques in Oman.
Disputed or notedIbadis reject the label 'Khariji', and many scholars distinguish them from the early Kharijites, while others trace the school to that movement. The size of the Ibadi population is uncertain; Oman does not publish religious affiliation.
These are not separate sects. The law schools and creeds sit inside Sunni Islam, and Sufism is found among both Sunnis and Shia.
The four Sunni law schools (madhhabs)
Schools of law within Sunni IslamNo reliable global counts
Named for four scholars: Abu Hanifa (699 to 767), Malik ibn Anas (713 to 795), al-Shafi'i (767 to 820) and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780 to 855).
AuthorityAll four use the Quran, the Sunnah, consensus and analogy, but weigh them and other tools differently (for example, Maliki law gives weight to the practice of the people of Medina).
GodSame as Sunni Islam. The schools are about law, not belief in God.
ProphetsSame as Sunni Islam.
LeadershipScholarly lineages of jurists and muftis; no central authority.
Core beliefs
- Hanafi: the most widespread; makes broad use of reasoning and juristic preference (istihsan).
- Maliki: gives weight to the practice of the people of Medina.
- Shafi'i: systematized the sources of law; strong role for hadith and analogy.
- Hanbali: the strictest reliance on texts of the Quran and hadith; a main source of Salafi thought.
- All four are accepted as legitimate within Sunni Islam.
PracticesDifferences are mostly in details of prayer, purity, contracts and inheritance. The schools regard each other's rulings as valid.
Disputed or notedGlobal size of each school is not well measured; figures quoted online are estimates.
Sunni creeds: Athari, Ash'ari and Maturidi
Schools of theology within Sunni IslamNo reliable counts
Ash'ari school: Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (c. 874 to 936). Maturidi school: Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853 to 944). Athari (textualist) tradition: no single founder; closely tied to Ahmad ibn Hanbal and later Salafi thought.
AuthorityQuran and authentic hadith in all three; they differ on how far reason (kalam, rational theology) may be used to explain the divine attributes.
GodAll affirm one God with attributes. They differ on how to understand verses describing God's hand, face and settling on the throne: Atharis affirm the wording without asking how; Ash'aris and Maturidis allow interpretation as well.
ProphetsSame as Sunni Islam.
LeadershipScholarly lineages; the schools are usually taught alongside one of the four law schools.
Core beliefs
- Athari: accept the text on God's attributes as it comes, without asking 'how' and without rational reinterpretation.
- Ash'ari: use rational theology to defend the faith and may interpret some attributes figuratively.
- Maturidi: gives reason somewhat more weight in knowing God; prominent among Hanafis.
- All three accept the Quran and Sunnah and affirm God's oneness.
PracticesTheological, not ritual, differences.
Disputed or notedWhich of the three best represents the early community is argued within Sunni Islam. Salafi (Athari) scholars criticize rational theology; Ash'ari and Maturidi scholars hold their approaches to be the mainstream.
Sufism (a tendency within Islam, not a sect)
Spiritual tendency within Sunni and Shia IslamNo reliable count
Developed from the early centuries of Islam as a path of inner devotion and self-purification; later organized into orders (tariqas) around particular teachers.
AuthorityQuran and Sunnah, with the guidance of a spiritual teacher (shaykh) and the order's traditions.
GodAbsolute oneness of God, with an emphasis on love of God and knowing God.
ProphetsSame as Sunni or Shia Islam, depending on where the order stands.
LeadershipA shaykh in a chain of teachers back to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) through the order's founder.
Core beliefs
- A tendency, not a separate sect: Sufis are found among Sunnis and Shia.
- Spiritual path of purifying the heart, under the guidance of a teacher.
- Remembrance of God (dhikr) as central practice.
- Most Sufis follow one of the standard legal schools and observe the Five Pillars.
PracticesRemembrance of God (dhikr), spiritual retreats, poetry and music in some orders; visits to the tombs of saints in many regions.
Disputed or notedAcceptance varies: Pew found a median of 77 percent in South Asia considered Sufis Muslims, 50 percent in the Middle East and North Africa, and lower elsewhere. Salafi critics reject practices such as tomb visitation; Sufi scholars hold them permissible.
Early movements that shaped later debates. Neither is a large community today.
Khawarij (Kharijites)
Historic early movementNo large group today
Emerged around the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), when some of Ali's supporters rejected arbitration with Mu'awiya, saying that judgment belongs to God alone.
AuthorityThe Quran; strict reading.
GodOne God, as in Islam.
ProphetsSame as other Muslims.
LeadershipAny pious Muslim could be leader, and a leader who sinned could be removed.
Core beliefs
- Judgment belongs to God alone; rejected the arbitration at Siffin.
- A major sin removes a person from the community (in extreme groups).
- Any pious Muslim may lead, regardless of lineage.
- Divided into groups (such as Azraqis, Najdat, Sufris and Ibadis).
PracticesStrict piety.
Disputed or notedEarly Kharijite groups differed widely; the label is applied to Ibadis by outsiders but rejected by Ibadis.
Mu'tazila
Historic theological schoolNo large community today
Rationalist school of Basra and Baghdad, from the early 8th century. Wasil ibn Ata (c. 699 to 749) is the conventional founder.
AuthorityReason and the Quran.
GodStressed God's absolute unity and justice.
ProphetsSame as other Muslims.
LeadershipScholars.
Core beliefs
- God's absolute unity and justice.
- Human free will.
- The Quran is created.
- Under the caliph al-Ma'mun the created-Quran doctrine became state teaching (the mihna from 833), until reversed by al-Mutawakkil.
PracticesTheological.
Movements that identify as Muslim but are not accepted as Islam by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship
These three groups identify as Muslim. That they are not accepted as Islam is the position of mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship, not a judgment made here, and each card gives its specific reason next to the group's own view.
Ahmadiyya
Identifies as Muslim; not accepted as Islam by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship10 to 20 million (independent estimates)
Founded in 1889 in Qadian, India, by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835 to 1908).
Why mainstream scholarship does not accept it as IslamMainstream Sunni and Shia scholars hold that Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is the last of the prophets (
Quran 33:40). Ahmadis believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was a prophet who came after Muhammad, which these scholars see as contradicting the finality of prophethood. Ahmadis reject this reading and identify as Muslims.
AuthorityThe Quran and the Sunnah, and the writings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.
GodOne God, as in Islam.
ProphetsAhmadis hold that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was the Promised Messiah and the Mahdi, a subordinate prophet who brought no new law. They also hold that Jesus (peace be upon him) survived the cross and died a natural death.
LeadershipA khalifa (caliph) elected within the community; the fifth khalifa is Mirza Masroor Ahmad. A smaller Lahore branch regards Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer, not a prophet.
Core beliefs
- Mirza Ghulam Ahmad is believed to be the Promised Messiah and the Mahdi.
- He is held to be a prophet who came without a new law, under the Prophet Muhammad.
- Jesus survived the crucifixion and died naturally.
- Leadership by an elected khalifa.
- A rejection of violent jihad in favor of peaceful means.
PracticesThe Five Pillars and Ramadan, as other Muslims; strong missionary and humanitarian activity.
Disputed or notedThe group identifies as Muslim. Mainstream Sunni and Shia scholars do not accept it as Islam because of the belief in a prophet after Muhammad, which they see as contradicting the finality of prophethood (
Quran 33:40). Pakistan's 1974 constitutional amendment declared Ahmadis non-Muslim for legal purposes; the Community rejects that decision. Membership figures are uncertain.
Nation of Islam
Identifies as Muslim; not accepted as Islam by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarshipAbout 10,000 to 50,000 (estimates)
Founded in Detroit in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad; led by Elijah Muhammad from 1934 to 1975. After 1975 most followers, under Warith Deen Mohammed, moved into mainstream Sunni Islam; Louis Farrakhan split from him in 1978, revived the Nation of Islam and leads it today.
Why mainstream scholarship does not accept it as IslamThe Nation of Islam taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad was God in person and that Elijah Muhammad was God's Messenger. Mainstream Sunni and Shia scholars see the first as contradicting the oneness of God (
Quran 112:1 to 4) and the second as contradicting the finality of prophethood (
Quran 33:40). They also reject its racial theology. After 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed led most of its followers away from these teachings into mainstream Sunni Islam.
AuthorityThe Quran, the Bible and the teachings of Elijah Muhammad.
GodTeaches that God appeared in person as Wallace Fard Muhammad, which mainstream Islam rejects.
ProphetsTeaches that Elijah Muhammad was the Messenger of God. It also teaches a racial theology about the origins of black and white people that mainstream Muslims reject.
LeadershipA national leader (Louis Farrakhan) and ministers.
Core beliefs
- Wallace Fard Muhammad is taught to be God in person (Brill).
- Elijah Muhammad is taught to be the Messenger of God (Brill).
- Black self-determination through separate Black businesses, schools and, ultimately, a Black state; the movement eschewed violence (Brill).
- A racial theology about the origins of black and white people, which mainstream Muslims reject.
- Community self-reliance and discipline.
PracticesA strict moral and social code and study of Elijah Muhammad's teachings. Followers who went with Warith Deen Mohammed after 1975 adopted the Five Pillars and standard Sunni practice.
Disputed or notedThe Nation of Islam identifies as Islam. Mainstream Muslims and scholars reject its doctrines on God, prophethood and race. Warith Deen Mohammed rejected Fard's divinity and Elijah Muhammad's prophetic status after 1975. Membership figures are estimates and vary widely.
Quranists
Identifies as Muslim; not accepted as Islam by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarshipNo reliable count
Modern Quran-alone movements arose in the 19th and 20th centuries in India, Egypt and elsewhere; not a single organization.
Why mainstream scholarship does not accept it as IslamQuranists reject the hadith as binding authority. Classical Sunni and Shia scholarship holds that the Sunnah, as preserved in hadith, is necessary to understand and practice the Quran, so it does not regard that position as part of traditional Islam. Quranists identify as Muslims and vary widely among themselves.
AuthorityThe Quran alone; hadith are rejected as binding authority (some use them as history).
GodOne God, as in Islam.
ProphetsMuhammad is accepted as Messenger; the extent of his role in teaching beyond the Quran is debated among Quranists. Rashad Khalifa's Submitters, a particular Quranist group, claimed he was a further messenger.
LeadershipNo central leadership; individual teachers and small groups.
Core beliefs
- The Quran is the sole source of religious law and doctrine.
- Hadith collections are not accepted as binding.
- Practice of prayer and other duties is derived directly from the Quran.
- No single organization or leader.
PracticesDaily prayer, fasting and other duties as derived from the Quran by each group, often differing from the Sunni and Shia norms.
Disputed or notedQuranists identify as Muslim. Classical Sunni and Shia scholarship considers the Sunnah, as preserved in hadith, necessary to understand and practice the Quran, so mainstream scholarship does not regard hadith-rejecting positions as part of traditional Islam. Quranists vary widely among themselves.
Descriptions follow each group's own statements of belief where available. For the three groups in the last section, the page gives both the group's own view and the position of mainstream Sunni and Shia scholarship, and says which is which. Groups that exist but are not listed here can be added.